Completed WQRF Research:
2017 WQRF Grant Program: "Household POU Filters: Tools for Long-term, Large Volume Monitoring of Tap Water Quality and Human Health Risks"
Principal Investigator: Kelly Reynolds, PhD, University of Arizona
This study was conducted to determine a direct method for monitoring tap water quality over long time periods. Point-of-use (POU) device filters were collected at the end of their life expectancy and analyzed for fecal bacteria and infectious human enteroviruses. Results indicate POU filters can be used for large volume monitoring of drinking water quality at the point-of-use. Pathogen data was used to develop quantitative risk assessment models to compare human health risks of infection in the presence and absence of a POU device. Click on the following links to see an executive summary and educational handout of the study's findings, and click here to see the full report.
Cost Benefits of Point-of-Use Devices in Reduction of Health Risks
Principal Investigator: Kelly Reynolds, PhD, University of Arizona
This study establishes a cost – benefit relationship of using a point-of-use (POU) device in homes to lower health risks by reducing the concentration of contaminants from drinking water to the lowest feasible level. A case study of Flint, MI was performed in this study demonstrating the benefits of POU devices especially during situations that elevated risk of exposure. Click here to read more about how POU devices can be a risk mitigation strategy, and click here for the full report.
Boil Water Notices in the United States, 2012-2014
Principal Investigator: Kelly Reynolds, PhD, University of Arizona
This study is the first comprehensive database of the cause for boil water notices (BWN) issued in the 155,000 documented public water systems in the United States. The study concludes most BWN’s (53%; n=11,131) were issued as a precaution for the possibility of microbial contaminants due to leaks or breaks in a water main. The report concludes that due to the randomization of these events, an appropriate risk management method that could be utilized is point-of-use or point-of-entry water treatment certified for microbiological reduction. Steps for proper sanitization of treatment equipment after a BWN event is available for members in the WQA Knowledge Base. Click here for a copy of the executive summary. Members may download the electronic toolkit of the study here and access the full report here.
Reduction of Effluent Chloride to Wastewater Treatment Plants
Principal Investigator: Kathy Lake, PE, Madison Metropolitan Sewerage District
The final report of this study is available on Madison Metropolitan Sewerage District's (MMSD) website. The study can be used as a model approach in areas struggling with chloride discharge. The final conclusions were that on average, softener optimizations could reduce the concentration of chlorides by 27% while replacement with systems meeting 4,000 grains/lb. salt efficiency could reduce the concentration of chlorides by 47%. WQA members can find articles regarding softener optimization for efficiency in the WQA Knowledge Base and download the electronic toolkit here.
Peak Water Demand Study
Principal Investigator: Steven Buchberger, PhD, University of Cincinnati
The Water Quality Research Foundation, in collaboration with the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) and the American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE), became a co-sponsor in funding a research project to develop a statistically based probability model that would predict the peak water demand for single and multi-family dwellings having water-conserving plumbing fixtures. Thanks to this research, a new plumbing code was drafted and was adopted during the 2017 code cycle which may lead to an ease in addressing environmental concerns and/or reducing stagnation within the distribution system of a building, which helps to lessen bacterial growth to keep filters and water treatment systems clean.
Click here for a copy of the executive summary.
Counterfeit Refrigerator Filter Study
WQRF provided partial funding to the Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers (AHAM) study on the performance and material safety of fraudulent refrigerator filters. These filters were selected for the study based on their illegal use of a manufacturer’s and certification body’s logos and their health reduction claims. Of the 18 counterfeit filters tested, all failed to meet NSF/ANSI 53 requirements for lead reduction at 200% capacity, and only 2 removed lead at 100% capacity. No counterfeit filter removed live cysts to the standards of NSF/ANSI 53, despite lowering the testing threshold to 90% removal. Click here to view the full report.
National “Deep Dive” Consumer Water Quality Study
Principal Investigator: Anita Kantak, PhD, Applied Research-West, Inc.
The objectives of this study were to gather information that would help focus the scope of future WQRF research and to educate consumers on point-of-use and point-of-entry technologies. Click here for a copy of the executive summary.
Water Softener Effects on Septic System Performance
Principal Investigator: John Novak, PhD, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
This study was undertaken to investigate the effect home ion-exchange water softeners may have on the performance of onsite septic tanks. The data indicate that the use of efficiently operated water softeners (at or above ~3000 gr/lb salt efficiency) improves septic tank performance, while the use of very inefficient home softeners (at or below ~1000 gr/lb salt efficiency) may have a negative effect on solids discharge to the drain
field.
Softened Water Benefits Studies -
Click here to download the executive summary. A two-page summary of the studies can be found here.
Chloroform Surrogate Study
Laid the ground work in NSF/ANSI standards for carbon filter manufacturers to test effectiveness for chloroform and claim effectiveness for 53 regulated synthetic organic chemicals.
Leaching of Metals from Household Plumbing Materials: Study of the Impact of Home Water Softeners
The results demonstrated that there is no link between softened water and corrosion. This U.S. Environmental Protection Agency study, funded by WQRF, provides scientific support that ion exchange water softening does not affect the corrosivity of water.
Septic Tank/Water Softener Studies
This 1978 research report combines the scientific data for two separate studies. Part I of the report is a summary of the research concepts and results. Part II is devoted to the “Potential Effects of Water Softener Use on Septic Tank Soil Absorption On-Site Waste Water Systems” study, completed by the University of Wisconsin – Madison. Part III of the report is focused on The National Sanitation Foundation’s study, “The Effect of Home Water Softener Waste Regeneration Brines on Individual Aerobic Wastewater Treatment Plants.” Overall, the studies concluded that it is better to discharge water softener wastes to septic tank systems than to separate dry wells or ditches.
Water Softeners as Energy Conserving Investments
The purpose of this study was to measure and quantify differences in energy consumption of household water heaters installed and operated on hard versus softened water supplies. 29.57% more Btu's were consumed by the gas water heaters that had been operated and tested on hard water. 21.68% more Btu's were consumed by the electric water heaters that had been operated and tested on hard water.
Principal Investigator: Kelly Reynolds, PhD, University of Arizona
This study was conducted to determine a direct method for monitoring tap water quality over long time periods. Point-of-use (POU) device filters were collected at the end of their life expectancy and analyzed for fecal bacteria and infectious human enteroviruses. Results indicate POU filters can be used for large volume monitoring of drinking water quality at the point-of-use. Pathogen data was used to develop quantitative risk assessment models to compare human health risks of infection in the presence and absence of a POU device. Click on the following links to see an executive summary and educational handout of the study's findings, and click here to see the full report.
Cost Benefits of Point-of-Use Devices in Reduction of Health Risks
Principal Investigator: Kelly Reynolds, PhD, University of Arizona
This study establishes a cost – benefit relationship of using a point-of-use (POU) device in homes to lower health risks by reducing the concentration of contaminants from drinking water to the lowest feasible level. A case study of Flint, MI was performed in this study demonstrating the benefits of POU devices especially during situations that elevated risk of exposure. Click here to read more about how POU devices can be a risk mitigation strategy, and click here for the full report.
Boil Water Notices in the United States, 2012-2014
Principal Investigator: Kelly Reynolds, PhD, University of Arizona
This study is the first comprehensive database of the cause for boil water notices (BWN) issued in the 155,000 documented public water systems in the United States. The study concludes most BWN’s (53%; n=11,131) were issued as a precaution for the possibility of microbial contaminants due to leaks or breaks in a water main. The report concludes that due to the randomization of these events, an appropriate risk management method that could be utilized is point-of-use or point-of-entry water treatment certified for microbiological reduction. Steps for proper sanitization of treatment equipment after a BWN event is available for members in the WQA Knowledge Base. Click here for a copy of the executive summary. Members may download the electronic toolkit of the study here and access the full report here.
Reduction of Effluent Chloride to Wastewater Treatment Plants
Principal Investigator: Kathy Lake, PE, Madison Metropolitan Sewerage District
The final report of this study is available on Madison Metropolitan Sewerage District's (MMSD) website. The study can be used as a model approach in areas struggling with chloride discharge. The final conclusions were that on average, softener optimizations could reduce the concentration of chlorides by 27% while replacement with systems meeting 4,000 grains/lb. salt efficiency could reduce the concentration of chlorides by 47%. WQA members can find articles regarding softener optimization for efficiency in the WQA Knowledge Base and download the electronic toolkit here.
Peak Water Demand Study
Principal Investigator: Steven Buchberger, PhD, University of Cincinnati
The Water Quality Research Foundation, in collaboration with the International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) and the American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE), became a co-sponsor in funding a research project to develop a statistically based probability model that would predict the peak water demand for single and multi-family dwellings having water-conserving plumbing fixtures. Thanks to this research, a new plumbing code was drafted and was adopted during the 2017 code cycle which may lead to an ease in addressing environmental concerns and/or reducing stagnation within the distribution system of a building, which helps to lessen bacterial growth to keep filters and water treatment systems clean.
Click here for a copy of the executive summary.
Counterfeit Refrigerator Filter Study
WQRF provided partial funding to the Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers (AHAM) study on the performance and material safety of fraudulent refrigerator filters. These filters were selected for the study based on their illegal use of a manufacturer’s and certification body’s logos and their health reduction claims. Of the 18 counterfeit filters tested, all failed to meet NSF/ANSI 53 requirements for lead reduction at 200% capacity, and only 2 removed lead at 100% capacity. No counterfeit filter removed live cysts to the standards of NSF/ANSI 53, despite lowering the testing threshold to 90% removal. Click here to view the full report.
National “Deep Dive” Consumer Water Quality Study
Principal Investigator: Anita Kantak, PhD, Applied Research-West, Inc.
The objectives of this study were to gather information that would help focus the scope of future WQRF research and to educate consumers on point-of-use and point-of-entry technologies. Click here for a copy of the executive summary.
Water Softener Effects on Septic System Performance
Principal Investigator: John Novak, PhD, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
This study was undertaken to investigate the effect home ion-exchange water softeners may have on the performance of onsite septic tanks. The data indicate that the use of efficiently operated water softeners (at or above ~3000 gr/lb salt efficiency) improves septic tank performance, while the use of very inefficient home softeners (at or below ~1000 gr/lb salt efficiency) may have a negative effect on solids discharge to the drain
field.
- Click here to download the executive summary as a PDF.
- Click here to download the full report as a PDF (WQA members only).
Softened Water Benefits Studies -
Click here to download the executive summary. A two-page summary of the studies can be found here.
- Energy Savings Study conducted by Battelle Memorial Institute: focused on efficiency improvements in household water heaters from the use of softened water, and the subsequent effect on performance of fixtures. Click here to download the full report as a PDF (WQA members only).
- Dishwasher Study conducted by Scientific Services S/D, Inc.: quantified the relative effects of hardness and detergent dosage to show savings possible by softening hard water. Click here to download the full report as a PDF (WQA members only).
- Laundry Study conducted by Scientific Services S/D, Inc.: compared the effects of detergent dose, water hardness and wash temperature on the stain removal performance of five household laundry detergents. Click here to download the full report as a PDF (WQA members only).
Chloroform Surrogate Study
Laid the ground work in NSF/ANSI standards for carbon filter manufacturers to test effectiveness for chloroform and claim effectiveness for 53 regulated synthetic organic chemicals.
Leaching of Metals from Household Plumbing Materials: Study of the Impact of Home Water Softeners
The results demonstrated that there is no link between softened water and corrosion. This U.S. Environmental Protection Agency study, funded by WQRF, provides scientific support that ion exchange water softening does not affect the corrosivity of water.
Septic Tank/Water Softener Studies
This 1978 research report combines the scientific data for two separate studies. Part I of the report is a summary of the research concepts and results. Part II is devoted to the “Potential Effects of Water Softener Use on Septic Tank Soil Absorption On-Site Waste Water Systems” study, completed by the University of Wisconsin – Madison. Part III of the report is focused on The National Sanitation Foundation’s study, “The Effect of Home Water Softener Waste Regeneration Brines on Individual Aerobic Wastewater Treatment Plants.” Overall, the studies concluded that it is better to discharge water softener wastes to septic tank systems than to separate dry wells or ditches.
- Click here to download the full report as a PDF (WQA members only).
Water Softeners as Energy Conserving Investments
The purpose of this study was to measure and quantify differences in energy consumption of household water heaters installed and operated on hard versus softened water supplies. 29.57% more Btu's were consumed by the gas water heaters that had been operated and tested on hard water. 21.68% more Btu's were consumed by the electric water heaters that had been operated and tested on hard water.
- Click here to download the executive summary as a PDF.